The Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) is a widely used tool to differentiate between sleep apnea and snoring, although it doesn't directly diagnose the conditions, it helps in assessing the likelihood of sleep apnea by evaluating daytime sleepiness, which is a common symptom of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

 Some articles suggest a strong link between High vitamin D levels and low risk of cancers.

 Bupropion was developed and initially introduced in the United States as an antidepressant but was subsequently noted to reduce the desire to smoke cigarettes and shown in clinical trials to be effective in smoking cessation, one of its commonest contraindications is past history of Epilepsy.

Bupropion, a medication used for smoking cessation and depression, is known to have insomnia as one of its common side effects. Other potential side effects include dry mouth, headache, and increased risk of seizures, particularly at higher doses. It generally does not cause weight gain or sedation, which differentiates it from some other medications used for similar purposes.

 Crude death rate = no. of deaths\\Population number ×1000

 The maximum dose according to guidelines is: 800 mg per dose or 3200 mg per day.

The process of selecting every 10th family in each group is known as systematic sampling. In this method, the researcher selects every kth individual (or unit) from a list after starting at a random point. It is a type of probability sampling where the sampling interval (in this case, every 10th family) is predetermined.

Refrigerated vaccines are stored between 2C and 8C, and frozen vaccines between -50C and -15C.

Relapsing fever (**Note: Can be transmitted by Tick).

Flaviviruses are typically transmitted through vectors, such as mosquitoes (e.g., Aedes mosquitoes in the case of Dengue and Zika virus). The most effective preventive measure to reduce the spread of these infections is controlling the vector population through measures like mosquito control (eliminating breeding sites, using insecticides, and employing bed nets).

Eradication of dust mites 1) Reduce humidity levels to less than 50 percent inside your home, especially in the bedroom 2) Airing out the house with open windows allows entry of pollen, which is another allergen as well as food for dust mites. 3) Wash all bedding weekly. Research has shown laundering with any detergent in warm water (77 degrees F) removes nearly all dust mites and cat allergens from bedding 4) Avoid overstuffed furniture because it collects dust 5) Avoid wool fabrics/rugs because wool sheds particles and is eaten by other insects 6) Use washable curtains and rugs instead of wall-to-wall carpeting 7) Cleaning and washing items that harbor them, exposing them to temperatures over 60 °C (140 °F) for one hour.

A likelihood ratio of 0.3 indicates that the likelihood of a positive test result occurring in a person with the disease is lower than the likelihood of the test result occurring in a person without the disease.

Perinatal mortality = stillbirths + death at 1 week of life/ total births*1000

Attack rate is the cumulative incidence of infection in a group of people observed over a period of time during an epidemic, usually in relation to food borne illness.

Relative risk is a ratio of the probability of the event occurring in the exposed group versus a nonexposed group.
 example where the probability of developing lung cancer among smokers was 20% and among nonsmokers 1%.

 The first step in an epidemiological study is to strictly define exactly what requirements must be met in order to classify someone as a "case." This seems relatively easy, and often is in instances where the outcome is either there or not there (a person is dead or alive).

The vaccine is updated annually because of antigenic drift, where the influenza virus undergoes minor changes that can make the previous year's vaccine ineffective.

Endemic: the constant presence of a disease or infectious agent in a certain geographic area or population group. (usually rate of disease).
Epidemic:  the rapid spread of a disease in a specific area or among a certain population group.excessive rate of disease).
A pandemic: is a worldwide epidemic; an epidemic occurring over a wide geographic area and affecting a large number of people.

Sensitivity: The probability that a diseased patient will have a positive test result.
Specificity: The probability that a non-diseased person will have a negative test result.

Sensitivity = a / (a + c) Specificity = d / (b + d).
A sensitive test is good for ruling out a disease.
High sensitivity = good screening test (decreases false negatives).
High specificity = good for ruling in a disease (good confirmatory test).

The relative risk (RR) is calculated by comparing the risk of the disease in those with the risk factor to the risk in those without the risk factor. This is given by the formula:

RR=Risk in exposed group/ risk in un-exposed group

Incidence = the rate of new cases of a disease occurring in a specific population over a particular period of time.

This condition is characterized by excessive focus on physical symptoms that cannot be fully explained by medical findings, leading to significant distress and functional impairment.

Primary prevention: Action to protect against disease as immunization. , Action to promote health as
healthy lifestyle.
Secondary prevention: Identifying & detecting a disease in the earliest stage before symptoms appear,
when it is most likely to be treated successfully (screening).
Tertiary prevention: Improves the quality of life of people with various diseases by limiting the
complications.

In prospective studies, those who enter the group depend on whether they have the risk factor to be studied or not.

The symptoms described are characteristic of cluster headaches, which are known for their severe unilateral pain around the eye, often associated with autonomic symptoms such as lacrimation and nasal congestion. The first-line treatment for acute cluster headaches includes oxygen therapy (breathing in 100% oxygen at 7-10 L/min via a non-rebreather mask for 15-20 minutes), which is highly effective in relieving symptoms

Negative predictive value= True negative/(true negative+ false negative)